During the time of Prophet Muhammad (570–632 CE), Southeast Asia was home to various kingdoms that thrived through trade, Indian and Chinese cultural influences, and diverse governance systems. Kingdoms such as Chenla, Tarumanagara, Kalingga, and Dvaravati played significant roles in the spread of Hindu-Buddhist traditions, infrastructure development, and trade relations with the outside world.
Additionally, maritime kingdoms like Langkasuka and Ma-i served as key trading hubs, connecting Southeast Asia with India and China. This period laid the foundation for the great civilizations that would emerge in the region in the following centuries.
Late Funan (1st century – mid-6th century CE; decline around 570 CE)
Funan was the first major civilization in Southeast Asia, influencing many later kingdoms despite its decline in the mid-6th century.
- Location: Centered in the Mekong Delta, covering present-day Cambodia, Vietnam, and Thailand.
- Culture: Heavily influenced by Indian civilization, adopting Hinduism and Buddhism while maintaining an extensive maritime trade network linking India and China.
- Political Structure: Funan had a centralized monarchy with an efficient administrative system, resource management, and collective efforts for political purposes.
- Key Achievements: Funan flourished as a major maritime trade center in Southeast Asia, connecting India and China via sea routes. Its port city, Óc Eo, was a hub for international trade. The kingdom played a vital role in the Indianization process, spreading Hindu-Buddhist beliefs and adopting an Indian-inspired political and administrative system. Funan was also known for its advanced infrastructure, including sophisticated irrigation systems and well-organized urban planning, which supported economic growth and prosperity.
Chenla (550–802 CE)
Following Funan’s decline, Chenla emerged as a dominant power in Southeast Asia from the late 6th to early 7th century, laying the groundwork for the grand Angkor civilization that would follow.
- Location: Centered in present-day Cambodia, extending into Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand.
- Culture: Strongly influenced by Hinduism, particularly the worship of Shiva, as seen in its architecture, language, and Sanskrit inscriptions.
- Political Structure: Initially a collection of smaller kingdoms, Chenla later evolved into a centralized monarchy where the king held significant political and religious authority.
- Key Achievements: Chenla established the foundation for Khmer architecture, particularly in the Sambor Prei Kuk temple complex, which later inspired the Angkor style.
Tarumanagara (358–669 CE)
Tarumanagara was one of the oldest kingdoms in Indonesia, reaching its peak between the 6th and 7th centuries.
- Location: Situated in the western part of Java Island, covering present-day Jakarta, Bogor, and West Java.
- Culture: Strongly influenced by Indian civilization, as reflected in Sanskrit inscriptions and the Hindu practices adopted by the kingdom.
- Political Structure: A centralized monarchy with the king as the supreme ruler, often depicted in inscriptions as the protector of the people and religion.
- Key Achievements: Known for its advanced irrigation system, including the Chandrabhaga River canal, which enhanced agricultural productivity. The Ciaruteun and Kebon Kopi inscriptions serve as historical evidence of Tarumanagara’s prominence in the Nusantara region.
Kalingga (6th–7th Century CE)
Around the same period, Kalingga emerged as an influential kingdom in Central Java, Indonesia, playing a crucial role in trade and cultural exchange in the archipelago.
- Location: Located in present-day Jepara, Pati, and Semarang along the northern coast of Central Java.
- Culture: Heavily influenced by Indian culture, Kalingga adopted Buddhism as its official religion and maintained strong trade and cultural ties with China and India.
- Political Structure: A Buddhist monarchy led by Queen Shima, renowned for her strict legal policies and just governance, as recorded in Chinese chronicles.
- Key Achievements: Kalingga established maritime trade relations with the Tang Dynasty, enriching the kingdom's economy and cultural landscape. It also played a significant role in the spread of Buddhism in Java.
Early Dvaravati (6th–11th Century CE)
Dvaravati began to flourish in the 6th century, becoming a major center of civilization in Southeast Asia, particularly in the spread of Theravāda Buddhism.
- Location: Centered in the Chao Phraya Valley, Central Thailand.
- Culture: Strongly influenced by Indian civilization, particularly in art and religion. Theravāda Buddhism became the spiritual foundation, reflected in its distinctive Buddha statues and Indian-style carvings.
- Political Structure: A confederation of independent city-states without a strong central government but united by cultural and religious ties.
- Key Achievements: Dvaravati left a lasting legacy in art and religion, significantly influencing Khmer civilization and the early Thai kingdoms.
Kutai Martapura (4th–7th Century CE)
Kutai Martapura was the oldest Hindu kingdom in the Nusantara, thriving in East Kalimantan and playing a vital role in spreading Indian culture in the region.
- Location: Centered in Muara Kaman, East Kalimantan.
- Culture: Strongly influenced by Indian culture, particularly Shaivite Hinduism, as evidenced by the Yupa inscriptions written in Pallava script and Sanskrit.
- Political Structure: A monarchy with the king as the highest authority. Mulawarman, the most renowned ruler, was known for his generosity.
- Key Achievements: Kutai developed a structured governance system and introduced Hindu religious rituals, laying the foundation for the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms that followed in the Nusantara.
Langkasuka (2nd–12th Century CE)
Langkasuka was one of the oldest kingdoms in the Malay Peninsula, thriving as a center of trade and Hindu-Buddhist culture.
- Location: Situated in the northern Malay Peninsula, covering present-day southern Thailand and northern Malaysia.
- Culture: Strongly influenced by Indian civilization, with Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religions.
- Political Structure: A monarchy with the king as the supreme ruler, supported by regional governors.
- Key Achievements: Established trade networks with India and China and played a crucial role in spreading Hindu-Buddhist culture in Southeast Asia.
Pyu City-States (1st–9th Century CE)
The Pyu city-states were an early civilization in central Myanmar, known for their significant influence on the development of Buddhism in the region.
- Location: Centered in ancient cities such as Beikthano, Sri Ksetra, and Halin.
- Culture: Heavily influenced by Indian civilization, particularly through the spread of Theravāda Buddhism.
- Political Structure: Consisted of multiple city-states led by local rulers, maintaining loose political ties.
- Key Achievements: Constructed large stupas and temples, expanded trade networks with India and China, and served as an intermediary in the spread of Buddhism across the region.
Early Mon Kingdoms (Influenced by Dvaravati, since the 6th Century CE)
The early Mon kingdoms emerged as key centers for the spread of Theravāda Buddhism in southern Myanmar and central Thailand.
- Location: Situated in southern Myanmar (Mon State) and central Thailand.
- Culture: Strongly influenced by Indian civilization, particularly in religion, art, and writing.
- Political Structure: Comprised small city-states led by local kings, frequently interacting with other regional kingdoms.
- Key Achievements: Developed Buddhist architecture, such as stupas and inscriptions, and played a vital role in spreading Theravāda Buddhism throughout Southeast Asia.
Early Philippine Societies (Until the 10th Century CE)
The early history of the Philippines before the 10th century is primarily based on archaeological evidence, revealing small settlements and simple social structures.
- Location: Small communities were scattered across Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao.
- Culture: Influenced by Austronesian traditions, with trade connections to China and India.
- Political Structure: No major kingdoms existed, only small polities led by a datu (chieftain) or tribal leader.
- Key Achievements: Archaeological findings indicate Indian and Chinese influences, as well as the development of regional trade systems along Southeast Asia’s maritime routes.
Ma-i (From the 3rd Century CE Onward)
Ma-i was one of the earliest recorded maritime trading entities in the Philippines, recognized in Chinese records as a thriving trade hub.
- Location: Believed to be in Mindoro or southern Luzon.
- Culture: Shaped by maritime trade, with cultural exchanges between India and China through trading routes.
- Political Structure: Likely organized as a chiefdom (datu-led polity) or a trading city-state with a commerce-based governance system.
- Key Achievements: Functioned as a crucial trade center linking the Philippines with China, Southeast Asia, and India. Archaeological evidence, such as Chinese ceramics and bronze artifacts, highlights Ma-i’s role in regional trade networks.
