Long before Malay became widely used across Southeast Asia, the language had already appeared in written form in Sumatra. The evidence is the Kedukan Bukit Inscription, discovered in 1920 on the banks of the Tatang River near Palembang, South Sumatra.
Written in Old Malay, the inscription is the oldest known surviving written evidence of the Malay language.
The inscription does not tell a story about the language itself. Instead, it records the journey of a ruler named Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, who was associated with the rise of the Srivijaya Kingdom. According to the inscription, he set out from Minanga Tamwa with an army of 20,000 soldiers.
Scholars disagree on the date of the expedition recorded in the inscription. Riboet Darmosoetopo, an archaeologist who studied Old Malay inscriptions, dated it to 605 Saka, or 683 CE.
Georges Coedès, a French historian and specialist in Southeast Asian inscriptions, reached a different conclusion using calculations by L.-C. Damais, a French researcher of Indonesian history and epigraphy. He placed the beginning of the expedition on April 23, 682.
According to Coedès, the group travelled by boat and left the river mouth on May 19, accompanied by troops moving by land and sea. About a month later, they returned with victory and wealth for Srivijaya.
From Royal Records to Oaths of Allegiance
The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is not the only evidence of Old Malay being used in Sumatra. In the seventh century, the language also appeared in inscriptions documenting the activities of the Srivijaya Kingdom, from the establishment of gardens to rules governing people in its territories.
One example is the Talang Tuo Inscription, dated 606 Saka, or 684 CE. Written in Pallava script across 14 lines, it records the establishment of Sriksetra Garden under Sri Jayanasa's orders. The inscription lists various trees planted in the garden and expresses the hope that it would benefit all living beings.
Other inscriptions served a more forceful purpose. The Kota Kapur Inscription, dated 608 Saka, or 686 CE, contains curses against those who disobeyed Srivijaya. Another inscription, known as the Karang Brahi Inscription, also contains oaths and threats against people who were disloyal to the ruler.
According to Coedès, parts of these three inscriptions share similar wording. They warn people living in the upper Batang Hari region and on Bangka Island to obey the ruler and his appointed officials. The Kota Kapur Inscription also records an expedition to Java in 686 CE.
These inscriptions show that Old Malay was already being used for official royal communications. The language served not only as a means of everyday communication but also as a way to record orders and assert Srivijaya's authority.
Eight Inscriptions in Sumatra, Seven in Java
Discoveries of Old Malay inscriptions extended beyond the area around Palembang. In a study published in Berkala Arkeologi in 1998, Riboet Darmosoetopo documented eight inscriptions from the Srivijaya period in Sumatra.
Besides Kedukan Bukit, his list includes the Talang Tuo, Kota Kapur, Karang Brahi, Telaga Batu, Boom Baru, Palas Pasemah, and Bungkuk inscriptions.
Darmosoetopo also documented seven Old Malay inscriptions in Java. These include the Manjusrigrha Inscription, dated 714 Saka; the Payaman Inscription, dated to around 700–750 Saka; and the Dapunta Selendra Inscription, believed to date from around 750 Saka.
In general, these inscriptions date to approximately 778–828 CE, about a century after the Kedukan Bukit Inscription.
Written traces of Malay have also been found in the Philippines. An Old Malay copper inscription written in Kawi script was discovered in the Laguna area of Luzon Island. Dated 822 Saka, or 900 CE, it shows that the use of Malay had reached areas beyond Sumatra and Java.
Historian Leonard Andaya sees the distribution of these inscriptions as evidence of Srivijaya's influence across the western part of the Nusantara region. In the early centuries of its documented history, Malay was already being used across territories connected by the kingdom's networks of power and trade.
So, Did the Malay Language Originate in Sumatra?
The oldest known written evidence of Malay takes us back to Sumatra, particularly the Palembang area, which was an important centre of Srivijaya in the seventh century. This is where some of the earliest Old Malay inscriptions were found, recording royal journeys, garden construction, and the kingdom's laws and commands.
Leonard Andaya also notes that the name “Melayu” appeared in historical records in 644 CE, when a mission to China was associated with a place called Melayu in Sumatra. This record further establishes Sumatra's importance in the early history of the Malay world.
Sumatra therefore occupies a central place in the history of the Malay language. Both the early historical appearance of the name “Melayu” and the oldest known surviving written evidence of the language point to the region. These inscriptions provide an early record linking Malay to the history of Srivijaya and its spread across the Nusantara region.
