A recent publication by Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) Publishers has sparked discussion among Malaysian scholars and on social media. The book Melayu Mahawangsa: Tanah Air, Sejarah, Kerajaan dan Peradabannya puts forward claims about ancient Malay warriors during China’s Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), including the idea that a figure known as “Kunlun” possessed unusual physical abilities—such as leaping across rooftops or appearing to fly.
According to the book, this Kunlun figure arrived in China through maritime trade routes in the ninth century and gained attention at the imperial court for his extraordinary skills, while supposedly retaining a strong Malay identity. These claims quickly prompted responses from historians and researchers, who questioned how historical sources were interpreted and where the line should be drawn between legend, literature, and documented history.
What Does “Kunlun” Mean in Historical Sources?
The debate largely centers on how the term Kunlun (昆仑) is used in ancient Chinese texts. Civil engineer and independent researcher Megat Hisemudin Megat Kasim, who reads classical Chinese, has examined several primary sources that help clarify the term’s original meaning.
The earliest known reference to Kunlun as a label for people appears in Nan Zhou Yi Wu Zhi, written by Wan Zhen in the third century CE. The text refers to the kingdom of Funan, located west of Lin Yi (Champa), where officials and nobles were called Kunlun. This suggests that the term initially described people from a certain region, not a specific ethnic group.
During the Tang Dynasty, Buddhist monk Yi Jing (I-tsing), in A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea, described communities south of present-day northern Viet Nam as having dark skin and curly hair. Later, the official Tang chronicle Jiu Tang Shu used the term Kunlun more broadly for people living south of Lin Yi with similar physical features.
Taken together, these sources show that Kunlun was a general label used for several Southeast Asian populations, including people from Funan, Champa, and parts of the Malay Archipelago. It was not a term that referred only to Malays, nor did it describe a single group.
Why Method Matters in Historical Research
Historians stress that strong historical arguments depend on careful use of sources. Dr. Sahul Hamid Mohamed Maiddin of Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI) emphasizes that historical claims must be supported by evidence that can be checked and compared.
“History is built on sources that can be tested,” he explained in interviews. “Myths and legends exist everywhere, but they are not the same as historical records.”
Scholars warn against what is often called pseudohistory—accounts based on selective readings, fictional texts, or ideas taken out of context. While such stories may be appealing, they risk confusing readers and weakening public understanding of history.
Literature, Fiction, and Historical Limits
One key issue raised by researchers is the use of later literary works as historical proof. Megat Hisemudin points to claims about the Kunlunpo, described in some modern writings as giant Malay ships that dominated early maritime trade.
He notes that these descriptions come from Xing Tang Chuan, a romance text compiled during the Qing Dynasty, many centuries after the events it describes. While valuable as literature, historians caution that such works should not be treated as factual records unless supported by earlier sources.
Flying Warriors and Martial Arts Interpretations
The discussion expanded further when claims emerged that ancient Malays had supernatural abilities, including flight, and passed these skills on to China. Cultural scholars have offered more grounded explanations.
Professor Datuk Seri Dr. Md Salleh Yaapar, chairman of Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, acknowledges that Malays had contact with Tang China through trade and performance. However, he explains that references to “flying” likely relate to martial arts movements—such as flying kicks in pencak silat—rather than literal flight.
He argues that cultural achievements should be understood accurately, without stretching their meaning beyond what sources support.
Balancing Cultural Pride and Evidence
The Kunlun debate reflects a wider challenge: how to celebrate cultural heritage while maintaining academic responsibility. Many scholars agree that the Malay world played an important role in regional trade, seafaring, and cultural exchange—facts that are well documented.
Primary Chinese records suggest that people referred to as Kunlun nu (Kunlun servants or slaves) during the Tang period were mainly linked to Funan and Champa, regions that had earlier contact with China. Meanwhile, large-scale maritime activity from Java expanded notably only from the eighth century onward.
Looking Ahead
Scholars generally agree that Southeast Asia’s historical contributions do not need extraordinary claims to be meaningful. The Kunlun discussion highlights the value of multilingual research, careful reading of sources, and open academic debate.
As Dr. Sahul notes, history is most valuable when it is both engaging and supported by evidence. Understanding the past, he suggests, requires curiosity—along with discipline, context, and respect for what sources can genuinely tell us.
